Which of the Following Artists Shared Stieglitz Concern to Position Photography as an Art Form

Art, science and exercise of creating durable images by recording light or other electromagnetic radiations

Photography

Lens and mounting of a big-format camera
Other names	Scientific discipline or art of creating durable images
Types	Recording light or other electromagnetic radiation
Inventor	Louis Daguerre (1839) Henry Fox Talbot (1839)
Related	Stereoscopic, Full-spectrum, Light field, Electrophotography, Photograms, Scanner

Photography is the art, awarding, and exercise of creating durable images past recording light, either electronically past means of an image sensor, or chemically by ways of a light-sensitive material such as photographic picture. It is employed in many fields of science, manufacturing (east.k., photolithography), and business, equally well as its more than directly uses for art, film and video product, recreational purposes, hobby, and mass communication.^[1]

Typically, a lens is used to focus the low-cal reflected or emitted from objects into a real epitome on the lite-sensitive surface inside a camera during a timed exposure. With an electronic image sensor, this produces an electrical charge at each pixel, which is electronically candy and stored in a digital image file for subsequent display or processing. The event with photographic emulsion is an invisible latent image, which is later chemically "developed" into a visible prototype, either negative or positive, depending on the purpose of the photographic textile and the method of processing. A negative image on picture show is traditionally used to photographically create a positive image on a paper base, known as a print, either past using an enlarger or by contact printing.

Etymology [edit]

The word "photography" was created from the Greek roots φωτός (phōtós), genitive of φῶς (phōs), "lite"^[two] and γραφή (graphé) "representation by means of lines" or "drawing",^[3] together meaning "drawing with light".^[4]

Several people may have coined the same new term from these roots independently. Hercules Florence, a French painter and inventor living in Campinas, Brazil, used the French form of the word, photographie, in private notes which a Brazilian historian believes were written in 1834.^[5] This merits is widely reported but is non still largely recognized internationally. The first use of the word by the Franco-Brazilian inventor became widely known subsequently the research of Boris Kossoy in 1980.^[6]

The German newspaper Vossische Zeitung of 25 February 1839 contained an article entitled Photographie, discussing several priority claims – peculiarly Henry Fox Talbot's – regarding Daguerre'south claim of invention.^[7] The article is the earliest known occurrence of the word in public impress.^[8] It was signed "J.M.", believed to have been Berlin astronomer Johann von Maedler.^[nine] The astronomer Sir John Herschel is as well credited with coining the word, contained of Talbot, in 1839.^[ten]

The inventors Nicéphore Niépce, Henry Fox Talbot and Louis Daguerre seem not to take known or used the word "photography", but referred to their processes as "Heliography" (Niépce), "Photogenic Cartoon"/"Talbotype"/"Calotype" (Talbot) and "Daguerreotype" (Daguerre).^[nine]

History [edit]

Precursor technologies [edit]

A camera obscura used for drawing

Photography is the result of combining several technical discoveries, relating to seeing an paradigm and capturing the prototype. The discovery of the camera obscura ("nighttime chamber" in Latin) that provides an image of a scene dates dorsum to ancient China. Greek mathematicians Aristotle and Euclid independently described a camera obscura in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE.^{[11] [12]} In the 6th century CE, Byzantine mathematician Anthemius of Tralles used a type of photographic camera obscura in his experiments.^[thirteen]

The Arab physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) (965–1040) also invented a camera obscura too every bit the get-go true pinhole photographic camera.^{[12] [xiv] [fifteen]} The invention of the camera has been traced dorsum to the work of Ibn al-Haytham.^[16] While the effects of a single light passing through a pinhole had been described earlier,^[16] Ibn al-Haytham gave the get-go right analysis of the camera obscura,^[17] including the starting time geometrical and quantitative descriptions of the phenomenon,^[xviii] and was the start to utilize a screen in a nighttime room so that an image from one side of a hole in the surface could exist projected onto a screen on the other side.^[19] He likewise beginning understood the relationship between the focal indicate and the pinhole,^[twenty] and performed early experiments with afterimages, laying the foundations for the invention of photography in the 19th century.^[15]

Leonardo da Vinci mentions natural camerae obscurae that are formed by nighttime caves on the edge of a sunlit valley. A hole in the cavern wall will act as a pinhole camera and project a laterally reversed, upside down paradigm on a piece of paper. Renaissance painters used the camera obscura which, in fact, gives the optical rendering in color that dominates Western Art. Information technology is a box with a small hole in one side, which allows specific light rays to enter, projecting an inverted paradigm onto a viewing screen or paper.

The birth of photography was then concerned with inventing means to capture and keep the image produced by the camera obscura. Albertus Magnus (1193–1280) discovered silver nitrate,^[21] and Georg Fabricius (1516–1571) discovered silver chloride,^[22] and the techniques described in Ibn al-Haytham's Volume of Optics are capable of producing primitive photographs using medieval materials.^{[23] [24]}

Daniele Barbaro described a diaphragm in 1566.^[25] Wilhelm Homberg described how light darkened some chemicals (photochemical effect) in 1694.^[26] The fiction volume Giphantie, published in 1760, by French writer Tiphaigne de la Roche, described what can be interpreted as photography.^[25]

Around the twelvemonth 1800, British inventor Thomas Wedgwood made the first known attempt to capture the image in a photographic camera obscura by means of a calorie-free-sensitive substance. He used paper or white leather treated with silver nitrate. Although he succeeded in capturing the shadows of objects placed on the surface in direct sunlight, and even made shadow copies of paintings on glass, it was reported in 1802 that "the images formed by means of a photographic camera obscura accept been found also faint to produce, in any moderate time, an consequence upon the nitrate of silver." The shadow images eventually darkened all over.^[27]

Invention [edit]

Earliest known surviving heliographic engraving, 1825, printed from a metal plate made by Nicéphore Niépce.^[28] The plate was exposed under an ordinary engraving and copied it by photographic means. This was a footstep towards the outset permanent photograph taken with a camera.

View of the Boulevard du Temple, a daguerreotype fabricated by Louis Daguerre in 1838, is generally accustomed every bit the earliest photograph to include people. It is a view of a decorated street, but because the exposure lasted for several minutes the moving traffic left no trace. But the two men near the bottom left corner, i of them obviously having his boots polished past the other, remained in one identify long enough to exist visible.

The first permanent photoetching was an image produced in 1822 by the French inventor Nicéphore Niépce, but it was destroyed in a later try to make prints from it.^[28] Niépce was successful once more in 1825. In 1826 or 1827, he made the View from the Window at Le Gras, the primeval surviving photograph from nature (i.e., of the image of a real-globe scene, as formed in a photographic camera obscura by a lens).^[29]

Considering Niépce's camera photographs required an extremely long exposure (at least eight hours and probably several days), he sought to greatly improve his bitumen process or replace it with i that was more practical. In partnership with Louis Daguerre, he worked out post-exposure processing methods that produced visually superior results and replaced the bitumen with a more lite-sensitive resin, but hours of exposure in the camera were still required. With an eye to eventual commercial exploitation, the partners opted for total secrecy.

Niépce died in 1833 and Daguerre and so redirected the experiments toward the light-sensitive silver halides, which Niépce had abandoned many years before because of his inability to make the images he captured with them light-fast and permanent. Daguerre's efforts culminated in what would later on be named the daguerreotype process. The essential elements—a silver-plated surface sensitized by iodine vapor, developed by mercury vapor, and "fixed" with hot saturated common salt water—were in place in 1837. The required exposure time was measured in minutes instead of hours. Daguerre took the earliest confirmed photograph of a person in 1838 while capturing a view of a Paris street: unlike the other pedestrian and horse-drawn traffic on the busy boulevard, which appears deserted, one man having his boots polished stood sufficiently still throughout the several-minutes-long exposure to be visible. The existence of Daguerre'southward process was publicly announced, without details, on vii January 1839. The news created an international sensation. France before long agreed to pay Daguerre a pension in exchange for the right to present his invention to the world as the gift of France, which occurred when complete working instructions were unveiled on nineteen August 1839. In that aforementioned yr, American lensman Robert Cornelius is credited with taking the earliest surviving photographic cocky-portrait.

A latticed window in Lacock Abbey, England, photographed by William Fox Talbot in 1835. Shown hither in positive class, this may be the oldest extant photographic negative made in a photographic camera.

In Brazil, Hercules Florence had apparently started working out a silverish-table salt-based newspaper process in 1832, later naming it Photographie.

Meanwhile, a British inventor, William Trick Talbot, had succeeded in making crude but reasonably light-fast silver images on paper as early as 1834 but had kept his work hush-hush. Afterwards reading about Daguerre'southward invention in January 1839, Talbot published his hitherto undercover method and fix about improving on it. At first, similar other pre-daguerreotype processes, Talbot'southward paper-based photography typically required hours-long exposures in the camera, just in 1840 he created the calotype process, which used the chemical development of a latent image to greatly reduce the exposure needed and compete with the daguerreotype. In both its original and calotype forms, Talbot's procedure, different Daguerre's, created a translucent negative which could be used to print multiple positive copies; this is the basis of nigh modern chemic photography upwardly to the present twenty-four hour period, as daguerreotypes could only be replicated by rephotographing them with a photographic camera.^[thirty] Talbot's famous tiny newspaper negative of the Oriel window in Lacock Abbey, ane of a number of camera photographs he made in the summer of 1835, may be the oldest photographic camera negative in being.^{[31] [32]}

In France, Hippolyte Bayard invented his own process for producing direct positive paper prints and claimed to have invented photography earlier than Daguerre or Talbot.^[33]

British chemist John Herschel made many contributions to the new field. He invented the cyanotype process, afterwards familiar equally the "blueprint". He was the first to use the terms "photography", "negative" and "positive". He had discovered in 1819 that sodium thiosulphate was a solvent of argent halides, and in 1839 he informed Talbot (and, indirectly, Daguerre) that it could be used to "gear up" silver-halide-based photographs and make them completely light-fast. He made the start glass negative in tardily 1839.

Wilson Chinn, a branded slave from Louisiana--per The New York Times, "i of the earliest and most dramatic examples of how the newborn medium of photography could alter the course of history."^[34]

Advertizing for Campbell'southward Photograph Gallery from The Macon City Directory, circa 1877.

In the March 1851 issue of The Chemist, Frederick Scott Archer published his wet plate collodion process. It became the most widely used photographic medium until the gelatin dry plate, introduced in the 1870s, eventually replaced information technology. In that location are three subsets to the collodion process; the Ambrotype (a positive image on glass), the Ferrotype or Tintype (a positive epitome on metal) and the glass negative, which was used to brand positive prints on albumen or salted newspaper.

Many advances in photographic glass plates and printing were made during the rest of the 19th century. In 1891, Gabriel Lippmann introduced a process for making natural-color photographs based on the optical phenomenon of the interference of light waves. His scientifically elegant and important but ultimately impractical invention earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1908.

Drinking glass plates were the medium for most original camera photography from the late 1850s until the general introduction of flexible plastic films during the 1890s. Although the convenience of the film greatly popularized amateur photography, early films were somewhat more than expensive and of markedly lower optical quality than their glass plate equivalents, and until the late 1910s they were non available in the large formats preferred past nearly professional person photographers, so the new medium did not immediately or completely replace the one-time. Because of the superior dimensional stability of glass, the utilise of plates for some scientific applications, such equally astrophotography, continued into the 1990s, and in the niche field of laser holography, it has persisted into the 21st century.

Film [edit]

Undeveloped Arista black-and-white film, ISO 125/22°

Hurter and Driffield began pioneering piece of work on the lite sensitivity of photographic emulsions in 1876. Their work enabled the first quantitative measure of film speed to be devised.

The outset flexible photographic whorl film was marketed by George Eastman, founder of Kodak in 1885, simply this original "film" was really a blanket on a newspaper base. As part of the processing, the image-bearing layer was stripped from the paper and transferred to a hardened gelatin support. The first transparent plastic gyre film followed in 1889. It was made from highly flammable nitrocellulose known as nitrate film.

Although cellulose acetate or "safety film" had been introduced by Kodak in 1908,^[35] at first it establish only a few special applications equally an culling to the hazardous nitrate film, which had the advantages of being considerably tougher, slightly more transparent, and cheaper. The changeover was not completed for X-ray films until 1933, and although safety pic was ever used for 16 mm and eight mm home movies, nitrate motion picture remained standard for theatrical 35 mm movement pictures until it was finally discontinued in 1951.

Films remained the dominant form of photography until the early on 21st century when advances in digital photography drew consumers to digital formats.^[36] Although modern photography is dominated by digital users, film continues to be used past enthusiasts and professional photographers. The distinctive "look" of film based photographs compared to digital images is likely due to a combination of factors, including: (1) differences in spectral and tonal sensitivity (S-shaped density-to-exposure (H&D curve) with motion-picture show vs. linear response curve for digital CCD sensors)^[37] (2) resolution and (3) continuity of tone.^[38]

Black-and-white [edit]

Originally, all photography was monochrome, or black-and-white. Even after color moving-picture show was readily bachelor, black-and-white photography connected to boss for decades, due to its lower cost, chemic stability, and its "archetype" photographic look. The tones and dissimilarity between light and dark areas ascertain black-and-white photography.^[39] Monochromatic pictures are non necessarily equanimous of pure blacks, whites, and intermediate shades of grayness simply can involve shades of one particular hue depending on the process. The cyanotype process, for example, produces an image composed of blue tones. The albumen impress process, publicly revealed in 1847, produces brownish tones.

Many photographers continue to produce some monochrome images, sometimes because of the established archival permanence of well-candy silverish-halide-based materials. Some full-colour digital images are processed using a variety of techniques to create black-and-white results, and some manufacturers produce digital cameras that exclusively shoot monochrome. Monochrome press or electronic display can be used to relieve certain photographs taken in color which are unsatisfactory in their original form; sometimes when presented as blackness-and-white or single-colour-toned images they are found to be more effective. Although colour photography has long predominated, monochrome images are still produced, mostly for artistic reasons. Nigh all digital cameras take an choice to shoot in monochrome, and almost all image editing software can combine or selectively discard RGB color channels to produce a monochrome epitome from 1 shot in colour.

Color [edit]

Colour photography was explored beginning in the 1840s. Early experiments in color required extremely long exposures (hours or days for camera images) and could not "fix" the photograph to forestall the color from quickly fading when exposed to white lite.

The first permanent colour photograph was taken in 1861 using the three-color-separation principle showtime published by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell in 1855.^{[40] [41]} The foundation of virtually all practical colour processes, Maxwell'southward idea was to accept three separate black-and-white photographs through red, greenish and blue filters.^{[40] [41]} This provides the photographer with the iii basic channels required to recreate a color image. Transparent prints of the images could be projected through similar color filters and superimposed on the projection screen, an additive method of color reproduction. A color print on paper could be produced by superimposing carbon prints of the iii images fabricated in their complementary colors, a subtractive method of color reproduction pioneered past Louis Ducos du Hauron in the late 1860s.

Color photography was possible long before Kodachrome, as this 1903 portrait by Sarah Angelina Acland demonstrates, but in its earliest years, the need for special equipment, long exposures, and complicated press processes made it extremely rare.

Russian lensman Sergei Mikhailovich Prokudin-Gorskii made extensive use of this color separation technique, employing a special camera which successively exposed the 3 color-filtered images on different parts of an oblong plate. Because his exposures were not simultaneous, unsteady subjects exhibited color "fringes" or, if rapidly moving through the scene, appeared every bit brightly colored ghosts in the resulting projected or printed images.

Implementation of color photography was hindered by the express sensitivity of early photographic materials, which were mostly sensitive to blueish, only slightly sensitive to green, and virtually insensitive to reddish. The discovery of dye sensitization past photochemist Hermann Vogel in 1873 of a sudden made it possible to add sensitivity to greenish, yellow and even ruby-red. Improved color sensitizers and ongoing improvements in the overall sensitivity of emulsions steadily reduced the one time-prohibitive long exposure times required for color, bringing information technology ever closer to commercial viability.

Autochrome, the first commercially successful color process, was introduced by the Lumière brothers in 1907. Autochrome plates incorporated a mosaic colour filter layer fabricated of dyed grains of potato starch, which allowed the three color components to be recorded as adjacent microscopic prototype fragments. After an Autochrome plate was reversal processed to produce a positive transparency, the starch grains served to illuminate each fragment with the correct color and the tiny colored points blended together in the middle, synthesizing the colour of the subject by the additive method. Autochrome plates were one of several varieties of condiment colour screen plates and films marketed between the 1890s and the 1950s.

Kodachrome, the first modern "integral tripack" (or "monopack") color film, was introduced by Kodak in 1935. It captured the three color components in a multi-layer emulsion. I layer was sensitized to record the ruby-dominated part of the spectrum, another layer recorded only the green role and a tertiary recorded only the blue. Without special film processing, the event would but be three superimposed black-and-white images, but complementary cyan, magenta, and xanthous dye images were created in those layers past adding colour couplers during a circuitous processing procedure.

Agfa's similarly structured Agfacolor Neu was introduced in 1936. Unlike Kodachrome, the color couplers in Agfacolor Neu were incorporated into the emulsion layers during manufacture, which greatly simplified the processing. Currently, available color films all the same utilize a multi-layer emulsion and the same principles, near closely resembling Agfa's production.

Instant color film, used in a special camera which yielded a unique finished color print only a minute or two afterwards the exposure, was introduced by Polaroid in 1963.

Color photography may class images equally positive transparencies, which can exist used in a slide projector, or as color negatives intended for apply in creating positive color enlargements on specially coated newspaper. The latter is at present the most mutual form of film (non-digital) color photography owing to the introduction of automated photo printing equipment. Subsequently a transition menses centered around 1995–2005, color film was relegated to a niche market by inexpensive multi-megapixel digital cameras. Film continues to be the preference of some photographers because of its distinctive "expect".

Digital [edit]

Kodak DCS 100, based on a Nikon F3 body with Digital Storage Unit

In 1981, Sony unveiled the first consumer photographic camera to utilize a charge-coupled device for imaging, eliminating the demand for pic: the Sony Mavica. While the Mavica saved images to disk, the images were displayed on television receiver, and the camera was not fully digital.

The first digital camera to both tape and save images in a digital format was the Fujix DS-1P created past Fujfilm in 1988.^[42]

In 1991, Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the offset commercially available digital unmarried lens reflex camera. Although its high cost precluded uses other than photojournalism and professional photography, commercial digital photography was born.

Digital imaging uses an electronic image sensor to record the image as a set of electronic information rather than as chemical changes on film.^[43] An important divergence betwixt digital and chemical photography is that chemical photography resists photograph manipulation considering information technology involves motion picture and photographic paper, while digital imaging is a highly manipulative medium. This difference allows for a degree of image post-processing that is insufficiently difficult in picture show-based photography and permits different communicative potentials and applications.

Photography on a smartphone

Digital photography dominates the 21st century. More 99% of photographs taken effectually the world are through digital cameras, increasingly through smartphones.

Techniques [edit]

Angles such as vertical, horizontal, or as pictured here diagonal are considered important photographic techniques

A large variety of photographic techniques and media are used in the process of capturing images for photography. These include the photographic camera; dualphotography; full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared media; lite field photography; and other imaging techniques.

Cameras [edit]

The camera is the image-forming device, and a photographic plate, photographic film or a silicon electronic image sensor is the capture medium. The corresponding recording medium can be the plate or moving-picture show itself, or a digital magnetic or electronic memory.^[44]

Photographers control the camera and lens to "expose" the calorie-free recording cloth to the required amount of light to class a "latent image" (on plate or moving picture) or RAW file (in digital cameras) which, after appropriate processing, is converted to a usable image. Digital cameras apply an electronic epitome sensor based on light-sensitive electronics such equally accuse-coupled device (CCD) or complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor (CMOS) technology. The resulting digital image is stored electronically, but can exist reproduced on a paper.

The camera (or 'camera obscura') is a nighttime room or chamber from which, as far as possible, all light is excluded except the light that forms the prototype. Information technology was discovered and used in the 16th century by painters. The subject being photographed, yet, must exist illuminated. Cameras can range from small to very large, a whole room that is kept night while the object to exist photographed is in another room where it is properly illuminated. This was mutual for reproduction photography of flat copy when big film negatives were used (see Process camera).

As soon every bit photographic materials became "fast" (sensitive) enough for taking candid or hugger-mugger pictures, small "detective" cameras were made, some actually disguised as a book or bag or pocket watch (the Ticka camera) or fifty-fifty worn hidden behind an Ascot necktie with a tie pin that was really the lens.

The movie camera is a blazon of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on recording medium. In dissimilarity to a still photographic camera, which captures a single snapshot at a fourth dimension, the motion picture camera takes a serial of images, each called a "frame". This is accomplished through an intermittent machinery. The frames are later played dorsum in a movie projector at a specific speed, chosen the "frame charge per unit" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person'due south eyes and brain merge the carve up pictures to create the illusion of move.^[45]

Stereoscopic [edit]

Photographs, both monochrome and color, can be captured and displayed through two side-past-side images that emulate human stereoscopic vision. Stereoscopic photography was the first that captured figures in motility.^[46] While known colloquially as "3-D" photography, the more accurate term is stereoscopy. Such cameras have long been realized past using movie and more recently in digital electronic methods (including cell telephone cameras).

Dualphotography [edit]

An case of a dualphoto using a smartphone based app

Dualphotography consists of photographing a scene from both sides of a photographic device at one time (e.g. camera for back-to-back dualphotography, or two networked cameras for portal-airplane dualphotography). The dualphoto appliance can exist used to simultaneously capture both the subject and the lensman, or both sides of a geographical identify at one time, thus adding a supplementary narrative layer to that of a single image.^[47]

Full-spectrum, ultraviolet and infrared [edit]

Ultraviolet and infrared films have been available for many decades and employed in a variety of photographic avenues since the 1960s. New technological trends in digital photography take opened a new direction in total spectrum photography, where conscientious filtering choices across the ultraviolet, visible and infrared atomic number 82 to new artistic visions.

Modified digital cameras can detect some ultraviolet, all of the visible and much of the almost infrared spectrum, as nigh digital imaging sensors are sensitive from nigh 350 nm to 1000 nm. An off-the-shelf digital camera contains an infrared hot mirror filter that blocks most of the infrared and a flake of the ultraviolet that would otherwise be detected by the sensor, narrowing the accustomed range from about 400 nm to 700 nm.^[48]

Replacing a hot mirror or infrared blocking filter with an infrared laissez passer or a broad spectrally transmitting filter allows the photographic camera to detect the wider spectrum light at greater sensitivity. Without the hot-mirror, the ruby-red, greenish and blue (or cyan, yellow and magenta) colored micro-filters placed over the sensor elements pass varying amounts of ultraviolet (blue window) and infrared (primarily red and somewhat lesser the dark-green and blue micro-filters).

Uses of full spectrum photography are for fine art photography, geology, forensics and law enforcement.

Layering [edit]

Layering is a photographic composition technique that manipulates the foreground, bailiwick or middle-basis, and background layers in a way that they all piece of work together to tell a story through the image.^[49] Layers may be incorporated by altering the focal length, distorting the perspective by positioning the camera in a sure spot.^[l] People, motion, lite and a variety of objects can be used in layering.^[51]

Lite field [edit]

Digital methods of prototype capture and display processing have enabled the new engineering of "light field photography" (also known as constructed aperture photography). This process allows focusing at diverse depths of field to be selected after the photograph has been captured.^[52] As explained past Michael Faraday in 1846, the "light field" is understood equally 5-dimensional, with each point in 3-D infinite having attributes of ii more than angles that define the direction of each ray passing through that signal.

These boosted vector attributes can be captured optically through the use of microlenses at each pixel betoken within the 2-dimensional image sensor. Every pixel of the final image is actually a choice from each sub-array located under each microlens, as identified by a post-epitome capture focus algorithm.

Other [edit]

Besides the camera, other methods of forming images with light are available. For instance, a photocopy or xerography machine forms permanent images but uses the transfer of static electric charges rather than photographic medium, hence the term electrophotography. Photograms are images produced by the shadows of objects cast on the photographic newspaper, without the use of a camera. Objects tin can also be placed directly on the glass of an image scanner to produce digital pictures.

Types [edit]

Apprentice [edit]

Apprentice photographers take photos for personal apply, as a hobby or out of casual interest, rather than as a business or job. The quality amateur piece of work tin can exist comparable to that of many professionals. Amateurs tin can fill up a gap in subjects or topics that might not otherwise exist photographed if they are not commercially useful or salable. Apprentice photography grew during the late 19th century due to the popularization of the hand-held camera.^[53] Twenty-showtime century social media and near-ubiquitous photographic camera phones have made photographic and video recording pervasive in everyday life. In the mid-2010s smartphone cameras added numerous automated assistance features similar color management, autofocus face detection and image stabilization that significantly decreased skill and effort needed to take high quality images.^[54]

Commercial [edit]

Commercial photography is probably best defined as whatever photography for which the photographer is paid for images rather than works of art. In this lite, money could be paid for the field of study of the photo or the photograph itself. Wholesale, retail, and professional uses of photography would fall under this definition. The commercial photographic world could include:

• Advertising photography: photographs made to illustrate and usually sell a service or product. These images, such as packshots, are mostly done with an advertising agency, design firm or with an in-firm corporate blueprint team.
• Architectural photography focuses on capturing photographs of buildings and architectural structures that are aesthetically pleasing and accurate in terms of representations of their subjects.
• Event photography focuses on photographing guests and occurrences at mostly social events.
• Style and glamour photography normally incorporates models and is a form of advertising photography. Fashion photography, like the work featured in Harper's Bazaar, emphasizes clothes and other products; glamour emphasizes the model and torso form. Glamour photography is popular in advertising and men's magazines. Models in glamour photography sometimes work nude.
• 360 production photography displays a series of photos to give the impression of a rotating object. This technique is ordinarily used by ecommerce websites to help shoppers visualise products.
• Concert photography focuses on capturing candid images of both the artist or band every bit well as the temper (including the crowd). Many of these photographers piece of work freelance and are contracted through an creative person or their direction to encompass a specific show. Concert photographs are oft used to promote the artist or band in improver to the venue.
• Crime scene photography consists of photographing scenes of offense such as robberies and murders. A black and white camera or an infrared camera may exist used to capture specific details.
• However life photography ordinarily depicts inanimate subject thing, typically commonplace objects which may be either natural or homo-fabricated. Still life is a broader category for food and some natural photography and can be used for advertizement purposes.
• Existent Estate photography focuses on the production of photographs showcasing a property that is for sale, such photographs requires the apply of wide-lens and all-encompassing knowledge in High-dynamic-range imaging photography.

Example of a studio-fabricated food photograph.

• Food photography can be used for editorial, packaging or advertising apply. Food photography is similar to even so life photography simply requires some special skills.
• Photojournalism can be considered a subset of editorial photography. Photographs made in this context are accepted every bit a documentation of a news story.
• Paparazzi is a form of photojournalism in which the photographer captures candid images of athletes, celebrities, politicians, and other prominent people.
• Portrait and hymeneals photography: photographs fabricated and sold directly to the finish user of the images.
• Landscape photography depicts locations.
• Wildlife photography demonstrates the life of wild animals.

Art [edit]

During the 20th century, both fine art photography and documentary photography became accepted by the English-speaking art world and the gallery organization. In the United States, a handful of photographers, including Alfred Stieglitz, Edward Steichen, John Szarkowski, F. Holland Day, and Edward Weston, spent their lives advocating for photography as a fine art. At first, fine art photographers tried to imitate painting styles. This motion is called Pictorialism, often using soft focus for a dreamy, 'romantic' wait. In reaction to that, Weston, Ansel Adams, and others formed the Group f/64 to advocate 'straight photography', the photograph equally a (sharply focused) thing in itself and non an false of something else.

The aesthetics of photography is a affair that continues to be discussed regularly, especially in artistic circles. Many artists argued that photography was the mechanical reproduction of an image. If photography is authentically fine art, and so photography in the context of art would need redefinition, such equally determining what component of a photograph makes it beautiful to the viewer. The controversy began with the earliest images "written with light"; Nicéphore Niépce, Louis Daguerre, and others amid the very earliest photographers were met with acclamation, but some questioned if their piece of work met the definitions and purposes of art.

Clive Bell in his classic essay Art states that simply "significant course" can distinguish art from what is not fine art.

There must be some one quality without which a work of art cannot exist; possessing which, in the least degree, no piece of work is altogether worthless. What is this quality? What quality is shared by all objects that provoke our artful emotions? What quality is mutual to Sta. Sophia and the windows at Chartres, Mexican sculpture, a Persian bowl, Chinese carpets, Giotto'due south frescoes at Padua, and the masterpieces of Poussin, Piero della Francesca, and Cezanne? Merely one reply seems possible – significant form. In each, lines and colors combined in a particular way, sure forms and relations of forms, stir our artful emotions.^[55]

On 7 February 2007, Sotheby's London sold the 2001 photograph 99 Cent Ii Diptychon for an unprecedented $3,346,456 to an anonymous bidder, making it the near expensive at the time.^[56]

Conceptual photography turns a concept or thought into a photograph. Even though what is depicted in the photographs are existent objects, the subject is strictly abstract.

In parallel to this development, the then largely divide interface between painting and photography was airtight in the early on 1970s with the work of the photo artists Pierre Cordier (Chimigramm), Chemigram and Josef H. Neumann, Chemogram. In 1974 the chemograms by Josef H. Neumann ended the separation of the painterly groundwork and the photographic layer by showing the flick elements in a symbiosis that had never existed earlier, as an unmistakable unique specimen, in a simultaneous painterly and at the same fourth dimension real photographic perspective, using lenses, within a photographic layer, united in colors and shapes. This Neumann chemogram from the seventies of the 20th century thus differs from the beginning of the previously created cameraless chemigrams of a Pierre Cordier and the photogram Human Ray or László Moholy-Nagy of the previous decades. These works of fine art were nearly simultaneous with the invention of photography by various of import artists who characterized Hippolyte Bayard, Thomas Wedgwood, William Henry Fox Talbot in their early on stages, and later Man Ray and László Moholy-Nagy in the twenties and by the painter in the thirties Edmund Kesting and Christian Schad by draping objects directly onto accordingly sensitized photograph newspaper and using a light source without a camera. ^[57]

Photojournalism [edit]

National Guardsman in Washington D.C. (2021)

Photojournalism is a particular form of photography (the collecting, editing, and presenting of news material for publication or broadcast) that employs images in society to tell a news story. It is now usually understood to refer just to still images, but in some cases the term too refers to video used in circulate journalism. Photojournalism is distinguished from other close branches of photography (e.grand., documentary photography, social documentary photography, street photography or celebrity photography) by complying with a rigid upstanding framework which demands that the work exist both honest and impartial whilst telling the story in strictly journalistic terms. Photojournalists create pictures that contribute to the news media, and help communities connect with one other. Photojournalists must be well informed and knowledgeable about events happening right outside their door. They evangelize news in a creative format that is not simply informative, only also entertaining, including sports photography.

Science and forensics [edit]

The photographic camera has a long and distinguished history as a means of recording scientific phenomena from the first use past Daguerre and Fox-Talbot, such as astronomical events (eclipses for example), small creatures and plants when the camera was attached to the eyepiece of microscopes (in photomicroscopy) and for macro photography of larger specimens. The camera also proved useful in recording law-breaking scenes and the scenes of accidents, such as the Wootton span collapse in 1861. The methods used in analysing photographs for utilise in legal cases are collectively known as forensic photography. Crime scene photos are taken from 3 vantage bespeak. The vantage points are overview, mid-range, and close-up.^[58]

In 1845 Francis Ronalds, the Honorary Director of the Kew Observatory, invented the kickoff successful photographic camera to make continuous recordings of meteorological and geomagnetic parameters. Dissimilar machines produced 12- or 24- hour photographic traces of the minute-past-minute variations of atmospheric force per unit area, temperature, humidity, atmospheric electricity, and the iii components of geomagnetic forces. The cameras were supplied to numerous observatories around the world and some remained in employ until well into the 20th century.^{[59] [sixty]} Charles Brooke a little later adult similar instruments for the Greenwich Observatory.^[61]

Science uses image technology that has derived from the design of the Pivot Hole photographic camera. X-Ray machines are similar in blueprint to Pin Pigsty cameras with high-grade filters and laser radiation.^[62] Photography has become universal in recording events and data in scientific discipline and engineering science, and at criminal offence scenes or accident scenes. The method has been much extended by using other wavelengths, such as infrared photography and ultraviolet photography, as well as spectroscopy. Those methods were outset used in the Victorian era and improved much further since that time.^[63]

The first photographed atom was discovered in 2012 by physicists at Griffith Academy, Commonwealth of australia. They used an electric field to trap an "Ion" of the element, Ytterbium. The image was recorded on a CCD, an electronic photographic pic.^[64]

Wild animals Photography [edit]

Wildlife photography involves capturing images of various forms of wildlife. Dissimilar other forms of photography such every bit product or food photography, successful wildlife photography requires a photographer to choose the correct place and right time when specific wildlife are nowadays and active. Information technology often requires great patience and considerable skill and command of the right photographic equipment.^[65]

Social and cultural implications [edit]

In that location are many ongoing questions about different aspects of photography. In her On Photography (1977), Susan Sontag dismisses the objectivity of photography. This is a highly debated subject area within the photographic customs.^[66] Sontag argues, "To photo is to appropriate the matter photographed. It means putting ane'due south self into a certain relation to the world that feels like knowledge, and therefore like ability."^[67] Photographers determine what to take a photo of, what elements to exclude and what angle to frame the photo, and these factors may reverberate a particular socio-historical context. Along these lines, it can be argued that photography is a subjective form of representation.

Modern photography has raised a number of concerns on its effect on lodge. In Alfred Hitchcock's Rear Window (1954), the camera is presented equally promoting voyeurism. 'Although the camera is an observation station, the human activity of photographing is more than passive observing'.^[67]

The camera doesn't rape or even possess, though it may assume, intrude, trespass, distort, exploit, and, at the farthest reach of metaphor, assassinate – all activities that, different the sexual push button and shove, can be conducted from a altitude, and with some disengagement.^[67]

Digital imaging has raised ethical concerns because of the ease of manipulating digital photographs in post-processing. Many photojournalists have declared they will not ingather their pictures or are forbidden from combining elements of multiple photos to make "photomontages", passing them as "real" photographs. Today'due south applied science has fabricated prototype editing relatively simple for fifty-fifty the novice photographer. However, recent changes of in-camera processing allow digital fingerprinting of photos to detect tampering for purposes of forensic photography.

Photography is ane of the new media forms that changes perception and changes the structure of society.^[68] Further unease has been caused around cameras in regards to desensitization. Fears that disturbing or explicit images are widely accessible to children and order at large accept been raised. Especially, photos of state of war and pornography are causing a stir. Sontag is concerned that "to photograph is to turn people into objects that can be symbolically possessed". Desensitization word goes hand in hand with debates well-nigh censored images. Sontag writes of her business organization that the ability to censor pictures ways the photographer has the ability to construct reality.^[67]

I of the practices through which photography constitutes society is tourism. Tourism and photography combine to create a "tourist gaze"^[69] in which local inhabitants are positioned and defined by the camera lens. However, it has likewise been argued that at that place exists a "reverse gaze"^[70] through which ethnic photographees tin can position the tourist photographer equally a shallow consumer of images.

Police force [edit]

Photography is both restricted and protected past the police force in many jurisdictions. Protection of photographs is typically accomplished through the granting of copyright or moral rights to the photographer. In the United states, photography is protected as a Starting time Amendment right and anyone is free to photo anything seen in public spaces as long equally it is in plainly view.^[71] In the UK a contempo law (Counter-Terrorism Act 2008) increases the power of the police to forbid people, even press photographers, from taking pictures in public places.^[72] In South Africa, whatever person may photograph whatever other person, without their permission, in public spaces and the but specific restriction placed on what may non be photographed past authorities is related to anything classed as national security. Each country has different laws.

See also [edit]

• Outline of photography
• Science of photography
• List of photographers
• List of photography awards
• Astrophotography
• Image editing
• Imaging
• Photolab and minilab
• Visual arts

References [edit]

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Further reading [edit]

Introduction [edit]

• Barrett, T 2012, Criticizing Photographs: an introduction to agreement images, 5th edn, McGraw-Colina, New York.
• Bate, D. (2009), Photography: The Fundamental Concepts, Bloomsbury, New York.
• Berger, J. (Dyer, G. ed.), (2013), Agreement a Photo, Penguin Classics, London.
• Bright, S 2011, Art Photography Now, Thames & Hudson, London.
• Cotton, C. (2015), The Photograph equally Contemporary Art, 3rd edn, Thames & Hudson, New York.
• Heiferman, M. (2013), Photography Changes Everything, Aperture Foundation, U.s.a..
• Shore, S. (2015), The Nature of Photographs, 2nd ed. Phaidon, New York.
• Wells, 50. (2004), Photography. A Critical Introduction [Paperback], 3rd ed. Routledge, London. ISBN 0-415-30704-X

History [edit]

• A New History of Photography, ed. by Michel Frizot, Köln : Könemann, 1998
• Franz-Xaver Schlegel, Das Leben der toten Dinge – Studien zur modernen Sachfotografie in den USA 1914–1935, 2 Bände, Stuttgart/Germany: Art in Life 1999, ISBN three-00-004407-8.

Reference works [edit]

• Tom Ang (2002). Lexicon of Photography and Digital Imaging: The Essential Reference for the Modern Photographer. Watson-Guptill. ISBN978-0-8174-3789-3.
• Hans-Michael Koetzle: Das Lexikon der Fotografen: 1900 bis heute, Munich: Knaur 2002, 512 p., ISBN three-426-66479-viii
• John Hannavy (ed.): Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography, 1736 p., New York: Routledge 2005 ISBN 978-0-415-97235-ii
• Lynne Warren (Hrsg.): Encyclopedia of Twentieth-Century Photography, 1719 p., New York: Routledge, 2006
• The Oxford Companion to the Photograph, ed. past Robin Lenman, Oxford University Press 2005
• "The Focal Encyclopedia of Photography", Richard Zakia, Leslie Stroebel, Focal Press 1993, ISBN 0-240-51417-3
• Stroebel, Leslie (2000). Bones Photographic Materials and Processes. et al. Boston: Focal Press. ISBN978-0-240-80405-7.

Other books [edit]

• Photography and The Art of Seeing by Freeman Patterson, Key Porter Books 1989, ISBN i-55013-099-iv.
• The Art of Photography: An Approach to Personal Expression by Bruce Barnbaum, Rocky Nook 2010, ISBN 1-933952-68-vii.
• Image Clarity: High Resolution Photography by John B. Williams, Focal Press 1990, ISBN 0-240-80033-8.

External links [edit]

• World History of Photography From The History of Fine art.
• Daguerreotype to Digital: A Brief History of the Photographic Procedure From the Land Library & Archives of Florida.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photography

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